Foreword                    ix

Preface                    xi

Acknowledgments          xiii

Chapter 1.  Introduction     1

     Purpose and Blueprint     5
    A Primer in Advanced Space Suit Engineering     5
         Terminology     6
         EVA Suit Nomenclature     8
         Pressure Suit Mechanics     9
         Nude Range          11
         Basic Mobility Joint Design     14
         The Bellows or Convolute Joint     18
         Understanding Spring Return, Neutraling, and Mobility Dynamics     22
         The Toroidal Mobility Joint     28
         The Rolling Convolute     34
         The Stacked Rolling Convolute     36
         The Armored Rolling Convolute (Annular Convolute)     37
         Cardonic Joint     37
         Dual Opposed Convolute     38
         Dual-Axis Joint     38
         Universal Joint     39
         Rotary Bearing or Rotary Joint     39
         Gathered Fabric Joint (or Flat Pattern Joint)     40
         Flat Pattern Convolutes     44
         Man-Loads          46
         Suit Construction     47
         Attachment Methods and Hardware     50
         Rigid and Hybrid Suit Element Construction     52
         Aluminum          52
         Stainless Steel     54
         Titanium          54
         Beryllium and Beryllium Alloys     54
         Composite Materials     55
              Glass-Fiber Composites     55
              Poly-Matrix Composites     55
              Metal-Matrix Composites     56
         Single Wall Laminate Construction (SWL)     57
         Thermoplastics and Thermoset Materials     59
         Elastomers          59
         Fluorocarbons     59
         Thermal-Micrometeoroid Garments (TMG)     60
         TMG Radiation Protection     61
         Helmets          63
              Mercury/Gemini     63
              Gemini     64
              Apollo Period     65
              Hemispherical Helmets     67
         Suit Sizing          69
    EVA Glove Technology     72
         Anthropometry of the Hand     75
         Limited Solutions     77
         The Shuttle EMU Glove     82
         End Effectors     86

Chapter 2.  EVA Suit Physiology and the Space Environment     89

          Life Support Gases     89
         Decompression Theory     93
         Barotrauma          105
         Explosive Decompression     107
         Ventilation          108
         Thermal Control     109
         Sublimation and the Liquid Cooling Garment     111
         Radiation          113
              Galactic Cosmic Radiation (GCR)     113
              Trapped Radiation     113
              Solar Events     114
              Neutron Flux     114
              Brief Physiological Effects of Radiation     114
         Micrometeoroid and Orbital Debris (MMOD) Impingement     116

Chapter 3.  Birth of the Space Age and the Apollo Era     119

     The Litton Hard Suit Program 1954 to 1969     119
         Litton and the First True Space Suit     119
         Shooting for the Moon     119
         Sig Hansen and the Vacuum Tube     121
         Mark-I in the Late 1950s     124
         The Legacy of the Mark-I     127
         The Litton Chamber Suit Enters the Space Age     128
         The RX-1          128
         The RX-2          133
         The RX-2A          136
         The RX-3          141
         The RX-4          143
         Lunar Shelter Test     147
         Outgrowth of the RX-4     149
         Total Integration of Suit Systems     151
         The Litton RX-5 and RX-5A Program     152
         Don and Doff Procedures as They Applied to RX-5     159
         RX-5 Mixed Gas Applications     159
         Application of the Rolling Convolute Joint to Underwater Technology     162
         Litton Chamber Suit     165

Chapter 4.  The Apollo Applications Program Era     167

     The Litton and AiResearch Advanced Extra-Vehicular Suit Program     167
         The Litton Constant Volume Suit     169
         The Litton Advanced Extra-Vehicular Suit     172
         AiResearch EX-1A and AES Phase Under the NASA Advanced
              Extra-Vehicular Suit Program     174
         The EX-1A          177
         The AiResearch AES     179
    Ames Research Center AX-1 Through AX-2 Rotary Joint Hard Suits,
         Including the Boeing Hard Suit Demonstrator     185
         The AX-1          188
         Suit Construction     190
         Mobility          192
         The AX-2          196
    The ILC Rotary Joint Hard Suit Demonstrator and Underwater
         Atmospheric Diving Suit     197
    Hamilton Standard’s MOL and Skylab Contributions     198
         The IEVA Concepts     202
         The IMLSS Suit     203

Chapter 5.  The Space Shuttle Era     207

          The Shuttle EVA Suit Competition     209
    The AiResearch/Aerotherm Shuttle Suit Assembly (SSA) Extended
         Modularity Concepts     210
    The Ames AX-3 Hybrid EVA Suit     216
    Application of All-Fabric Mobility Concepts to the Shuttle EVA
         System: The Space Age Controls IVA Suit (SAC) and the
         Intra-Vehicular Shuttle Suit Assembly (ISSA)     225
    Application of All-Fabric Mobility Concepts to the Shuttle EVA
         System: The Orbital Extra-Vehicular Suit (OES)     229
    The CSD Prototype Shuttle Baseline Suit, the Hamilton Standard/
         ILC Dover Shuttle Suit Prototype, and the Space Shuttle Extra-
         Vehicular Mobility Unit     232
         The Shuttle Suit Prototype     232
         Description of the Crew Systems Division Baseline Suit     235
         The NASA Inspector General’s Investigation     245
         The EMU for Space Shuttle Operations     253
         Major Components     254
              Helmet Assembly     254
              Communications Carrier Assembly     254
              Extra-Vehicular Visor Assembly (EVVA)     254
              Hard Upper Torso (HUT)     255
              Glove Assembly     255
              Lower Torso Assembly (LTA)     256
              Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment (LCVG)     256
              Urine Collection Device (UCD)     258
         Suit Fabric Construction     258
         Suit Construction Techniques (EMU)     260
         Maintenance and Inspection     261
         Primary Life Support System (PLSS)     262
         Emergency or Secondary Oxygen Supply     264
         Metabolic Cooling     264
         Display and Control Module     265
         Donning and Prebreathing     266
         Multiple EVAs     267
         Interruption of the Prebreathe Protocol     267
         Treating Decompression Sickness     268
         Donning the EMU     268
         Suiting Up          268
         Safety Issues     270
         Miscellaneous EMU Hazards     272
         Lithium Hydroxide (LiOH) Dusting     272
         Helmet Fogging     273
         Possible Hazards Produced by the Shuttle/EMU Interface     273
         Inert Gas Affecting Oxygen Partial Pressure     273
         Introduction of Hydrogen Into the EMU Atmosphere     274
         Release of Hydrogen Into the TMG     274
         Back Contamination of the Shuttle’s Drinking Water     274
         Safety Tether and Brackets     274
         Thrust or Impact During EVA     275
         Direct Exposure to Reaction Control Gases     275

Chapter 6.  The Era of the Russian Manned Lunar Program, Salyut,
and Mir Space Stations          277

     The Russian Manned Lunar Landing Effort and the EVA Suits
         Orlan-SKV, Orlan, and Krechet     280
    The Krechet Lunar EVA Suit and its Prototype     285
    Orlan-SKV               288
    Krechet               289
    The Salyut EVA Suits Orlan-D and Orlan-DM     293
    Orlan-D Architecture     296
    The Orlan-DM          301
    The Mir EVA Suit: The Orlan-DMA     302
         Suit Architecture     305
              Helmet     305
              Bearings     306
              Hard Upper Torso     306
              Arm and Shoulder Joints     307
              Lower Torso and Bladder     310
              Gloves     311
              Boots          314
              Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment     314
              Life Support Controls     314
              Orlan-DMA Life Support System (LSS)     317
         Mobility          320
         Subjective Astronaut Evaluations     322
              Donning the Mir Suit     324
         Training          325
         Future Developments     327

Chapter 7.  The Freedom Space Station Era     329

     EVA and the Freedom Space Station     330
    The ZPS Mk-I Through ZPS Mk-III     333
         The Zero Pre-breathe Mark-III     341
         Suit Architecture     344
         The Upper Torso Assembly     345
              HUT          345
              Helmet     347
              Shoulder Joint     348
              Elbow Joint     349
         The Lower Torso Assembly     350
              Waist Joint     350
              Brief          351
              Hip/Thigh Joints     352
              Leg and Boot Assembly     352
              Advanced Thermal-Micrometeoroid Garment     352
    The Ames AX-5 Hard Suit     353
         Soft Versus Hard     358
    The European Space Agency Prototype EVA Suit Program     361
    The European Space Suit System     363
         The ESSS Suit Demonstrator     369
    European/Russian EVA Suit 2000     372

Chapter 8.  The International Space Station Era:
Future Planetary Surface Suits     383

     International Space Station Overview and the Search for Common Ground     383
         The Search for Common Ground     387
    The Enhanced Shuttle Suit, Orlan-M, and Interoperability     388
    The Enhanced Shuttle Suit     389
         EMU Requirement     391
         Stowage          391
         Increasing the Number of EMUs     391
         On-Orbit Servicing and Life Support Enhancement     391
         Enhancing Mobility and Space Suit Structure Service Life     394
         Improved Fabric and Bearing Service Life Augmentation     395
         Hard Upper Torso     396
         Enhanced Glove Mobility     397
         Enhanced Sizing System     397
         Enhanced EVA Boot Endurance     399
         Turn-Around Costs     400
         Environmental Certification     400
         EVA Thermal Conditions     402
         SAFER          403
    The Orlan-M          405
         Increasing Operational Performance     407
         Enhanced Reliability and Simplified Compatibility with
              On-Board Systems     410
         Changes to the Electronic and Communications Equipment     412
    Interoperability          413
    Concepts for an Advanced Planetary Surface Suit     420
         A Brief Background     421
         The Martian Environment     422
         Mars Design Reference Mission and Planetary Operations     428
         The Mission     429
         Candidate Hardware for Mars EVA Systems     429
         Candidate Portable Life Support Systems     439
         Suit Pressure and Mass     451
         Advanced Mars EVA Suit Developments     454
         The Hamilton Standard Advanced Planetary EVA System
              (Next Generation Suit)     456
         The Pressure Suit Assembly Architecture     457
         The Portable Life Support System     460
         The EVA Support Cart     461
         Functional Mock-up     462
         The David Clark S1035 Enhanced Mobility ACES or “D” Suit     463
         David Clark EM-ACES (D-Suit) Architecture     464
         The ILC Dover “M” Suit (NASA Designation “L” Suit)     466
    Conclusion               470

Appendix.  Results of the Inquiry (AA-80-002) Extra-Vehicular Mobility Unit     477

     Table of Contents          478
    Acronyms               479
    I. Executive Summary     480
         Issue No. 1          480
         Issue No. 2          480
         Recommendation No. 1     481
         Agency Comments     481
         Additional Comments     481
         Issue No. 3          482
         Other Findings     482
         1. Diminution of Lead Time     482
         2. Funding          482
         3. Hard Upper Torso Sizes     482
         4. Elimination of the development Item     483
         Recommendation No. 2     483
         Agency Comments     483
         Additional Comments     484
         5. Undefinitized Changes     484
         Recommendation No. 3     484
         Agency Comments     485
    II. Introduction          485
         A. Scope          485
         B. Description of the Extra-Vehicular Mobility Unit     486
    III. Inter-Center Competition     486
         A. Background     486
         B. Conclusions     487
    IV. Equity of Competition     487
        A. Background     487
         B. Conclusion     488
         Recommendation No. 1     489
    V. Cost Growth-Overrun and Redesign     490
         A. Background     490
         B. Conclusions     493
    VI. Program Planning and Contract Management     493
         A. Background     493
         1. Diminution of Lead Time     493
         2. Funding          495
         3. HUT Sizes     495
         4. Elimination of the development Item     496
         Recommendation No. 2     497
         5. Undefinitized Changes     498

Reference Works Cited          501

    Chapter 1               501
    Chapter 2               506
    Chapter 3               509
    Chapter 4               510
    Chapter 5               512
    Chapter 6               514
    Chapter 7               517
    Chapter 8               518
    Supplemental to Conclusion     523

Detailed Contents/Outline       525

Index                         533